1. Introduction
[1.1] For a neurodivergent audience, finding representation in popular media is not easy. Representation is rare, and when neurodivergence (note 1) is represented, it is often stereotypical and inauthentic (Osteen 2007). A primary example of an autistic stereotype in modern visual media is the autistic savant, represented in, for instance, the 1988 film Rain Man (Murray 2007). Autistic people are also often portrayed by children, giving the false impression that autism is a childhood disorder that people can grow out of (Akhtar et al. 2022). The stereotypical representation of autism that is produced by Hollywood is based on commercialism, not a desire to accurately represent the condition (Murray 2007). However, this representation is, in many cases, the only source of information about autism that people consume. Stereotypical representation of autism can have a significant impact on audiences (Fraser 2018). For allistic (nonautistic) audiences, the harm comes in the form of gross misunderstanding of what authentic autism entails (Becker 2022). For autistic audiences, the harm can become more personal; the perpetuated negative image of autism can be internalized and negatively impact autistic people's self-esteem (Schwarz 2007).
[1.2] To escape from harmful, stereotypical representation, neurodivergent people have created special reading strategies, looking for representation in characters that show relatable neurodivergent traits, rather than an explicit diagnosis (Schwarz 2007). As a person with ADHD, this is a reading strategy I am familiar with. One example of a television show with characters that, according to fans, implicitly represents neurodivergent traits without explicitly stating so is the mockumentary series What We Do in the Shadows (2019–24).
[1.3] What We Do in the Shadows, inspired by Jermaine Clement and Taika Waititi's 2014 movie of the same name, follows a group of vampires living in contemporary Staten Island, New York. The main characters, Nandor, Nadja, and Laszlo, are the classic bloodsucking vampires we are familiar with from other popular vampire media. In addition, the show includes the character Colin Robinson, an energy vampire who feeds on boredom rather than blood, and Guillermo, Nandor's human familiar who wishes to be a vampire himself one day. Besides the main group of characters, the show includes a multitude of recurrent side characters, each quirky in their own way. Some of the quirky characteristics that are shown by the characters include behaving in a childish manner; having strong interests in particular, unusual topics; relying heavily on rules and routine; and generally being out of touch with modern society, all leading to funny situations. Part of the fan community surrounding What We Do in the Shadows interprets the quirky characteristics and traits of the characters as representing neurodivergence. This interpretation is shared online in multiple ways, and on multiple platforms. One of the fan practices the community uses to share its interpretation is the creation and sharing of compilation videos on YouTube. In these compilation videos, multiple scenes from the show are selected by the creator and edited together to emphasize recurring themes. Sometimes written comments are added by the creator overlaid on top of the scenes to explain why they were included.
[1.4] Neurodivergent fans use compilation videos to clarify why scenes from What We Do in the Shadows should be interpreted as portraying neurodivergence, and to share their interpretation with other fans. Through focusing on two traits that came up in both the videos and their comment sections—stimming and echolalia—I showcase two sides of fandom in relation to neurodivergence: the creation of content that represents neurodivergence and the reaction of (predominately neurodivergent) fans to the fan-created content. The fan-created videos show how fans interpreted the original content of the show and created a special reading strategy, while the fan reactions to the videos show how fans react to the (newly created) neurodivergent representation.
[1.5] To reach the conclusions presented in this article, a thematic discourse analysis following Taylor and Ussher (2001) was conducted on six YouTube videos. I searched for common themes present in the videos and comments and connected these to a broader social and political context. The videos were selected based on their titles, including "What We Do in the Shadow/WWDITS" combined with "neurodivergent/neurodivergence," "autism/autistic," and/or "ADHD." Consequently, all videos that were analyzed had a focus on neurodivergence. Videos included short scenes from the series that either showed multiple characters who were interpreted as portraying neurodivergence or focused on one specific character. To conserve the privacy of the creators and commenters, I will refer to the videos as videos 1 through 6 and commenters A through D.
2. Stimming
[2.1] Autism is a collection of neurological conditions that causes impairments "in social interaction, language acquisition and use, 'imaginative' interests and behaviors" (Osteen 2007, 9). Another name that is used to describe the condition, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), better explains the wide variety within the condition and the spectrum of (dis)ability that comes with it. "When you meet a person with autism, you have met one person with autism" is a commonly used phrase (Becker 2022). The diversity in experiences makes the condition difficult to portray in media, as one autistic experience might be completely unrelatable for another autistic person. Consequently, what is necessary for autistic representation is a range of different stories. Unfortunately, this is often not the case. As Hollywood is a commercial enterprise, popular media is created to sell to as many people as possible. This means that movies and television shows are most often created with a majority audience in mind (Murray 2007). Consequently, popular narratives about autism are created for a neurotypical audience rather than a neurodivergent one, and the desires of neurotypicals are kept in mind. This has resulted in the perpetuation of autistic stereotypes.
[2.2] The creators of the compilation videos included scenes that represent a variety of traits that can be attributed to neurodivergence, actively challenging popular narratives. Besides representing a diverse array of traits in the compilation videos, the creators represent diversity in how a trait can be expressed by different people. One example of this is stimming. Stimming can be described as a "self-stimulatory act" (Kapp et al. 2019, 1782). The act can provide comfort for neurodivergent people of all ages, can offer relief from overstimulation, and "can help manage uncertainty and anxiety" (1783). Although stimming is most often discussed in the context of autistic people, it is also used by people with ADHD and others who experience problems with sensory processing (Bethel 2024). Stimming is a repetitive behavior that can come in the form of bodily movements or vocalizations (echolalia). Examples are rocking the body back and forth, flapping the hands, whistling, or singing (Kapp et al. 2019). In the videos, stimming is shown through multiple characters and in multiple ways. For example, Lazlo bouncing up and down on his feet, Nadja's repeatedly pushing her fingers against each other while talking to the camera, and Guillermo sitting in the bushes and repeatedly squeezing a small toy.
[2.3] The examples above show that there is not only a diverse array of stims shown in the videos but also multiple characters who stim. This diversity is important. Stimming is historically misunderstood by neurotypical people, and treatment to control stimming remains used in clinical environments (Kapp et al. 2019). By showing a diverse representation of stimming, rather than one stereotype that people might already be familiar with, the fan creators help widen knowledge about stimming and what stimming can include.
[2.4] As becomes apparent in the comment section, a large part of the audience identifies as neurodivergent themselves. However, a neurodivergent person does not necessarily relate to a character based on neurodivergence alone, as neurodivergence encompasses many different identities and traits that can be expressed in multiple ways. Commenters share appreciation for a multitude of traits that the creators included, expressing relatability to the video in general ("terribly relatable 🥲"), to a specific scene ("0:16 has made me feel so seen"), or to a specific character ("Lazlo is such a mood"). Commenters mention a wide variety of things to relate to; twenty-five different reasons to relate to the scenes were mentioned. Moreover, there are comments that mention multiple separate traits as being relatable. For example, commenter A mentions stimming and echolalia: "2:19 I do that 😭 ❤️ [relating to a scene representing stimming] (…). Also echolia [sic] is another big one for me lol. Great video 💕." The variety in traits that are expressed as relatable by commenters show the community's appreciation of the diversity that the creators of the compilation videos brought to their videos. Furthermore, the way in which the same trait, such as stimming, is represented in a diverse way by multiple characters makes it more likely that multiple people can see themselves represented by it.
[2.5] The relatability of the compilation videos that fans share shows the necessity of diverse neurodivergent representation. The high number of appreciative comments shows how this diverse representation can have positive results for a neurodivergent audience. Comments that include the sentiment of feeling seen exemplify Schwarz's (2007) theory that as long as popular media uses neurodivergence as a plot device, neurodivergent people should look for representation outside of explicit autistic representation. The fan community that has formed around these compilation videos has been able to identify with the characters from What We Do in the Shadows as they are represented in the videos and, as Schwarz argues, this offers comfort ("[this specific scene] has made me feel so seen") and self-awareness ("3:01 really made a lightbulb switch on in my head") in a positive way for a neurodivergent audience. This comfort, self-awareness, and identification ("I've been questioning if I'm neurodivergent") might not have been shared within the fan community of What We Do in the Shadows without the existence of these compilation videos and the online communal space that the comment sections provide. This shows the importance of fandom and the strength and comfort that a position as a participatory fan can offer members of minority audiences, as well as the comfort that neurodivergent fan creations such as these compilation videos can offer for other neurodivergent fans.
[2.6] An important factor of fandom is the communities that are built. One thing that can come from community is support. An example of this is the conversation between commenter B and C. When B expresses insecurity about chewing on things in public, a common form of stimming, C responds supportively: "@B oh yeah that's fair. And honestly I don't think you'd be stared at, I've done more noticeable things and still been fine ^^ but yeah I feel that." C expresses that they can relate to what B wrote, taking away a possible feeling of isolation, and shares their own experience, letting them know that maybe their fear is unfounded. By concluding the comment with again expressing relatability, any possible feeling of superiority is taken away. This is not a commenter wanting to let others know that they know things better; this is a commenter genuinely offering support to another community member. This might be support that they cannot find offline and emphasizes the importance of online communities for neurodivergent people in which neurodivergent people are free to be their authentic selves.
[2.7] Because neurodivergence often comes with experiencing difficulties in social situations, autistic people's desire for relationships is not always fulfilled. This results in a higher amount of loneliness in neurodivergent adults than neurotypical ones in the same stage of life (Grace et al. 2022). Online communities can be especially helpful in building neurodivergent communities, because they take away the social rituals and expectations that are required offline and that can be challenging for neurodivergent people (Dekker 2020). Moreover, Dekker adds that the online (neurodivergent) community he created was the first time he felt truly accepted and that "in finding each other, [they] found [them]selves" (2020, 44). Online communities can help neurodivergent people find relationships in a way that might not be possible offline, which may also help them feel better about themselves. This is the type of support that makes online communities needed for neurodivergent people, and that makes the community created by the commenters important.
3. Echolalia
[3.1] Neurodivergent people often struggle with feeling pressured to fit into the neurotypical hegemonic mold of society. This means that neurodivergent people are often unable to express their authentic self and are forced to camouflage or mask their autistic behaviors and traits in social situations (Alaghband-rad et al. 2023). Masking may help neurodivergent people to fit into society; however, it can lead to serious issues, such as anxiety, depression, and exhaustion (Alaghband-rad et al. 2023). The community that was created by the commenters of the compilation videos offers a space for neurodivergent people to safely unmask and be their authentic selves. This is made easier by the fact that it is an online community and social rituals that can be challenging for neurodivergent people are removed.
[3.2] Stimming is one form of unmasked behavior. The vocal manifestation of stimming is called echolalia. Echolalia is "the repetition of sounds, words, phrases, or larger chunks of language" (Lewis 2013, 1045). It is typical behavior for developing children but may persist into adulthood for people with developmental disorders like autism. For autistic people, "repetitive talk may often be related to areas of special interest, media, or other environmental factors" (1046). Echolalia may be used by neurodivergent people of all ages for various communicative purposes, such as initiating a conversation or forming a reply (Lewis 2013). In the comment section, echolalia highlights the acceptance of neurodivergent behavior.
[3.3] Echolalia is included by the fan creators in the compilation videos multiple times (Nandor repeating the phrase "it's just a formality," Laszlo screaming "Seanie!" whenever he sees his friend Sean, and Nandor repeatedly saying "bazinga" after he becomes obsessed with the television sitcom The Big Bang Theory [2007–2019]), and is mentioned by multiple commenters as a trait they can relate to. More interestingly, quote-sharing is a repeated practice within this fan community. Most comments sharing a quote come from video 5 and relate to one specific scene in which Colin explains the big bang to Nandor. The quote "This is science. But this is a turtle" is shared without any further addition by five different commenters, and with extra addition (such as "is my absolute favourite line delivery") another four times. The amount of quote-sharing within this comment section may tell us something about this fan community. The majority of the commenters on these videos identify as neurodivergent. Although it would be a simplification to state that everyone who shares a quote in the comments below a video is neurodivergent, it is noteworthy that a sizable number of comments comes in the form of quote-sharing. Quote-sharing is a common form of echolalia, which is a neurodivergent behavior (Lewis 2013). The high number of likes that quotes in the comments receive shows an appreciation within this fan community of this practice. This illustrates the freedom to exhibit neurodivergent behavior and freely unmask within this fan community.
4. Conclusion
[4.1] I can conclude that compilation videos on YouTube are used by the fan community to share their interpretation of characters as neurodivergent by including a variety of neurodivergent traits and behaviors. In the comment section, fans share how the interpretation of the creators connects to their own, or how they personally see neurodivergence represented in the characters. The fans have discussions with each other in which they share their own perspectives and are respectful of other neurodivergent opinions. The fan community that has formed around these videos is one that is open for neurodivergent people to share their unmasked, authentic selves. Through representing a wide variety of neurodivergent traits through multiple characters, the same trait being portrayed differently by different characters, and by the inclusion of less commonly represented traits, the creators of the compilation videos reject the stereotypical representation of neurodivergence that predominates popular media. Authors like Becker (2022) and Osteen (2007) have previously argued for the importance of diversity within neurodivergent representation because neurodivergence can look different from person to person. This article adds to this argument by showing the appreciation of the large number of neurodivergent fans for the different traits included in the compilation videos. Murray claims that the desire of popular media to sell to a majority audience results in the use of stereotypes when it comes to representing neurodivergence (Murray 2007). Through the inclusion of different scenes that can be interpreted as portraying different neurodivergent traits, the fan creators show that neurodivergence can be represented by popular media in a fun and authentic way that does not rely on stereotypes.
[4.2] The community that was constructed by the commenters is one that offers comfort, joy, support, and a place to share one's authentic self for neurodivergent people. This is especially important for neurodivergent people, who tend to find it more difficult to connect with other people than neurotypicals do and might not be able to find the aforementioned comfort, joy, and support offline. This shows the strength of the community that was created around the compilation videos and the worth of special reading strategies, exemplifying Schwarz's (2007) theory that neurodivergent people should look for representation outside of explicit representation. The comments discussed demonstrate that neurodivergent people value relatable content over an explicit diagnosis stated in the source text, and that an explicit diagnosis is not necessary for neurodivergent viewers to relate to characters.
5. Acknowledgments
[5.1] I would like to thank Diantha Vliet and Philipp Dominik Keidl for supervising me and providing feedback on an earlier version of this work, and Ariel Rabkin-Meyer for providing me with feedback on this rewritten version.