1. Introduction
[1.1] Alfred the Great, born in 849, was a prominent historical figure and the King of Wessex, a kingdom in Anglo-Saxon England, from 871 to 899. He is often remembered as one of the greatest kings in English history. Alfred successfully defended his kingdom against Viking invasions, earning him the epithet "the Great." Alfred also fostered education and intellectual pursuits, personally promoting the translation of Latin works into English. He is even believed to have been a scholar himself, (co-)translating several books and laws. Alfred is remembered as a deeply religious, wise, and visionary ruler, revered for his contributions to the defense and cultural development of England. In the contemporary era, Alfred the Great's enduring historical prominence extends beyond academia, as his persona finds representation in popular culture such as the television series The Last Kingdom (Netflix, 2015–2022) and continues to inspire fan art, demonstrating his enduring fascination among enthusiasts and the wider public (Mussies 2019b, 2021).
[1.2] Within a neomedieval-based culture, both cosplayers and reenactors perform as King Alfred. When I was researching the historical reimagining of King Alfred (Mussies 2021b), these fans stimulated my curiosity. I wanted to learn about the personal reasons behind their choice of character, and the purist in me wanted to problematize the fans' bias versus historical objectivity and historical possibility in these fannish medievalist evocations. These forms of fan art are involved in a cross-pollination with series like Vikings (2013–2020) and The Last Kingdom, as their performances influence the yet-to-be-made seasons of these canons as well. Moreover, these fans are an interesting case to research the differences and similarities between cosplay and reenactment in the UK and the Netherlands. With my research, I hope to help with "creating an awareness of the behaviour of the historical experimenter" (Sibum 1995, 28) and thus contribute to fan studies, as historical entertainment takes a place in cosplay/fannish circles.
[1.3] Seven participants were recruited to provide fundamental insights into the experiences of fans engaged in performances centered around the character of King Alfred. All participants were white males, ranging in age from 22 to 45, and selected using a combination of methods, including meeting individuals at cosplay events, online recruitment, and referrals. They represented two countries, the Netherlands and the UK. The research incorporated open interviews conducted via social media, allowing for semistructured conversations. These interviews and observations were analyzed to explore how the participants perceived themselves, one another, and their performance art. To contextualize the participants' involvement, a review of relevant literature on historical reenactment and cosplay was conducted. Ethical considerations were upheld throughout the study, with participants provided with information about the research project's purpose, their participation, and their rights as research subjects. They were assured of confidentiality and identity protection, as well as the option to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. (As such, this research study involving interviews with individuals engaged in reenactment and cosplay activities adheres to ethical principles and guidelines as outlined by the Declaration of Helsinki and the Belmont Report.)
[1.4] Religion emerged as an important aspect for all participants, with one individual reflecting on the childhood stories shared by his mother: "When I was a child, my mother told me about King Alfred's piety and that made a huge impression on me." The performances did not incorporate elements of sexuality, despite its significant role in portrayals of King Alfred in popular culture, such as the Netflix series The Last Kingdom featuring the character. Among the participants, five identified as cosplayers, drawing inspiration from depictions of King Alfred in television series like Vikings and The Last Kingdom. Two participants identified as reenactors and created their own historically inspired costumes to participate in festivals, including Elfia, a fantasy-themed cosplay festival held twice a year in the Netherlands. This distinction implies that self-identified reenactors primarily exhibit affirmational fandom, celebrating and endorsing established narratives, while cosplayers tend to align with transformational fandom, creatively reimagining and remixing these narratives. Furthermore, these findings highlight the convergence of historical reenactment and cosplay within participants' performances, constituting a distinctive domain of practice-based research. The participants have cultivated a unique space where historical reenactment and cosplay intersect, giving rise to an innovative form of practice-based research.
[1.5] The functions of symbols in the intersections between theatrical performance and fandom are clearly visible in the works of the so-called new Alfreds I encountered—fans folding the present over the past by dressing up as the medieval King Alfred the Great. To illustrate how the simulacra produced in these practices produce new meaning, the Chi-Rho symbol used by various participants is discussed in more detail. This connects the performances of the new Alfreds more firmly to Christianity, which is confirmed by placing it in a religious context of a comparison with the passion play. As my analysis shows, playing King Alfred is indicative of a new form of religiosity that happens in a liminal practice-based research space, where reenactment and cosplay meet.
2. Reenactment versus cosplay
[2.1] While cosplay and reenactment are traditionally viewed as separate domains, the line between them is often ambiguous (Pearce 2009; Agnew 2004). Cosplay involves fans embodying fictional characters through elaborate costumes and makeup, while reenactment entails representing past events for educational or entertainment purposes. Both practices are integral to fan cultures, using fictional and nonfictional texts as foundations for new forms of play, productivity, and education (Pearce 2009; Agnew 2004). This convergence aligns with the philosophy of Robin George Collingwood, who argued that understanding someone else's thinking requires reenacting that thinking in one's own mind. In the cosplay community, an additional layer of reenactment is often present, such as portraying historical characters from films—Don "Wardaddy" Collier from 2014's Fury, for example. Anime/manga characters wearing historically accurate uniforms also represent a blend of cosplay and reenactment, as enthusiasts aim for historical correctness (Pearce 2009).
[2.2] Reenactment, encompassing diverse history-themed genres such as travelogues, historiography, and live performances, exhibits consistent methodologies and subject matter (Franko 2017). Common themes include Vikings, cowboys, explorers, knights, soldiers, and pyramid builders, largely aligning with grade-school history (Agnew 2004). This populist phenomenon in postmodern society involves interpreting and reusing historical texts and events in popular culture (Cook 2004). TV series like Vikings, Britannia (2017–2021), and The Last Kingdom exemplify its popularity. Reenactment aims to provide an entertaining and educational introduction to history for secular audiences (Cook 2004). Participants, including actors and historians, engage in simulations to learn new aspects of history not easily accessible through conventional methods (McCalman and Pickering 2010). Reenactors manipulate historical processes to achieve authenticity, emphasizing the practice as a simulation rather than an accurate representation of historical facts (Radtchenko 2006). In this contemporary form, reenactment signifies history's affective turn, drawing attention to subjective and conjectural representations over historical events and processes (Agnew 2007). Often labeled as escapism, reenacting is an immersive practice akin to method acting, allowing participants to walk in the shoes of historical figures like the English King Alfred (Agnew 2007).
[2.3] Cosplay is a form of appropriation that combines the words costume and play (Rahman, Cheung, and Wing-Sun 2012). It is a performance art wherein fans perform existing fictional characters in self-created costumes, thereby enhancing and extending popular narratives. Fans wear detailed makeup and elaborate costumes modeled after their favorite characters (Pearce 2009) and/or design original characters or a fusion of different genres (Furmston 2017). Cosplay also refers to activities such as masquerades, karaoke, and posing for pictures with other fans (Winge 2006). It is different from Halloween and Mardi Gras costume wear, as the salient purpose of cosplay is to embody a specific character, not to reflect cultural elements or holiday events. Genres within which cosplayers thrive include science fiction, fantasy, horror, mythology, and fetish. Generally, cosplay is an act of embodiment (Kinsella 1998). The accuracy of cosplay is determined by how well the fans can represent a character through body and costume. As performers, cosplayers can be limited by physical features such as body size and disability. Like any other art form, cosplay is in a constant state of evolution and development (Leng 2013). The skills of a cosplayer are evaluated based on the complexity and details of the costume. For Norris and Bainbridge (2009, 1), cosplay "in its purest form […] is akin to performance art, taking on the habitus of a particular character through costume, accessories, gestures and attitude," which resonates with the approach of reenactors trying to be as authentic as possible.
[2.4] On the surface level, the two arts share the majority of their characteristics. First, both arts entail bringing favorite characters and storylines to life through costuming, makeup, and acting (Rogers-Whitehead 2018). The four key elements involved in both cosplay and reenactment are a narrative, a set of costumes, a play or performance before spectators, and a subject (Lamerichs 2011). Secondly, both arts offer fans the chance to explore and interpret existing texts, perform them, and extend their own narratives and ideas. Fans are allowed creative freedom, and a lot of research goes into breathing life into the selected characters and stories. Additionally, cosplaying can be found in reenactment. Both performance arts have a social aspect; fans can gather at conventions, contests, and masquerades to interact and express their love for these forms of art. Members of both groups are also present on social media, as "through blogs, memes, Facebook groups and Twitter accounts, the medieval past is often refashioned into an expedient and meaningful experience for new audiences" (Elliott 2016).
[2.5] Motivations and contexts of historical reenactment and cosplay differ fundamentally. Cosplay, as defined by Crawford and Hancock (2019), is an integral aspect of a wider community centered around dressing up. Conversely, historical reenactment involves knowledge-building and recreating past methods comprehensively, including costume design, living arrangements, and various activities (Booth 2018). While authenticity in cosplay is evaluated based on fans' ability to depict characters through body and costume, reenactors strive for authenticity by connecting their art to reality within popular cultures (Booth 2015). Cosplay emphasizes fans' transformative abilities, allowing alterations such as genderbending and crossplay, reflecting the ethos that anyone can be anything (Lamerichs 2018). In contrast, reenactment simulates past events for educational and entertainment purposes, focusing on the simulation rather than personal identity. Both share common elements like costuming and acting, yet the essence of cosplay lies in the fan's personal transformation, while reenactment aims for authenticity in historical representation (Booth 2018; Lamerichs 2018). This study explores how individuals embodying Alfred blend both practices, challenging simplistic categorization.
3. Participants
[3.1] Whereas in the United States, cosplay and medieval historical recreation are intertwined, for my participants—four from the Netherlands and three from the United Kingdom—these two communities are rooted in vastly different traditions. Therefore, in this research, I could contrast the ethos of the historical reenactors with the ethos of the cosplayers. European medieval reenactment tradition entails historical reenactment that focuses on accurately recreating events in European history, from the fall of Rome to the end of the fifteenth century (Cramer 2010). Most medieval reenactment groups focus on small periods of time from the medieval ages or significant events that occurred in that time. A lot of emphasis is placed on reenacting civilian and military life, particularly combat and battle (Logemann 2019). When recreating civilian life or living history, the goal is to create an accurate representation of a person who could credibly exist at a specific place in a specific historical time. For my participants, such reenactment entails practicing historical skills, trade, and other activities, such as cooking, camping, and playing musical instruments from the Middle Ages. According to Sautkin (2014), involvement by word, gesture, or act in these activities expresses their identity. Therefore the participants view themselves as part of the particular subculture they recreate.
[3.2] For the reenactors who participated in this study, the major and most popular component of European medieval reenactment is battle and combat reenactment. The aim of this form of reenactment is to recreate historical or legendary battles from the medieval period. Next to battle and combat reenactment, the participants often talked about performing at broader events, organized to provide visitors with real-life experiences of what it meant to live during the medieval ages. For the participants interviewed, this reenactment of daily life, music, war, and other elements that existed in medieval culture provides them with an authentic medieval experience and, therefore, the participants consider themselves as descendants of the cultures that shaped modern Europe.
4. Casus Alfred the Great
[4.1] Internally, cosplay and reenactment groups, while externally appearing similar, displayed notable differences in their approaches. Cosplayers, focused on creative reinterpretations of characters like King Alfred as depicted in TV series, highlighted their uniqueness and adaptability at conventions. "Our goal is to bring a fresh and personal twist to beloved characters," said participant 1, a dedicated cosplayer. In contrast, reenactors, prioritizing historical accuracy, designed their own costumes, participating in events for an authentic medieval experience. "We strive to replicate every detail as it would have been in King Alfred's time," noted participant 2, a passionate reenactor. These distinctions shaped participants' perspectives, with cosplayers emphasizing creativity and adaptability, breathing new life into characters, and reenactors valuing dedication to historical accuracy and viewing it as setting them apart. "For us, it's about imagination and creativity," shared participant 3, a cosplayer, while participant 4, a reenactor, remarked, "Our commitment to historical fidelity is what truly differentiates us." Notably, not all participants in either group aimed to educate about medieval history. Cosplayers emphasized enjoyment and camaraderie with fellow fans, whereas reenactors stressed public education about King Alfred's historical significance, aiming for a deeper understanding of the past. "We love the community and the fun of it all," said participant 5, a cosplayer, whereas participant 6, a reenactor, explained, "Our mission is to educate and provide an immersive historical experience."
[4.2] The distinction between the cosplay and reenactment communities is further blurred by individuals embodying Alfred the Great. Limited reenactors portray Alfred due to logistical challenges, leading to creative adaptations within the Westencynn Early Medieval Reenactment group (private correspondence, November 2019). Many independent Alfreds, not affiliated with official reenactment groups, craft their costumes for festivals such as Elfia, resembling cosplayers in their independent approach. Cosplayers were divided between Viking groups and fans of actor David Dawson, who portrayed King Alfred in the television program The Last Kingdom. They engaged in historical research akin to reenactors (private correspondence, November 2019). Notably, the portrayal of Alfred in television series like Vikings and The Last Kingdom influences reenactors' costume choices, with some altering costumes to align with the TV depiction, blurring the boundaries between reenactment and cosplay (private correspondence, November 2019). Conversely, a reenactor disenchanted with The Last Kingdom's portrayal adjusted his costume to distance himself from the TV depiction, akin to the concept of "least favorite clothing" as a group-distancing mechanism observed in adolescents (Freitas et al. 1997).
[4.3] In intrafandom gatekeeping, fans may assert their legitimacy based on historical accuracy or commitment, potentially marginalizing those with different approaches. Those identified in this study as historical reenactors tend to prioritize authenticity and may not view cosplayers as seriously, reinforcing their own legitimacy within the fandom and controlling community boundaries. This aligns with affirmational fandom, emphasizing knowledge and commitment (Jenkins 1992). Conversely, cosplayers, aligned with transformational fandom, focus on emotional engagement and personal growth, akin to the tradition of telling hero tales (Smol 2010). The distinction between cosplayers' hero tales and reenactors' historical authenticity underlies their differences. Participants acknowledged each other's approaches, yet unique characteristics set them apart, reflecting diverse perspectives. Education motivations varied, and costume-design inspiration differed, illustrating the complexity within the study group. Nonetheless, instances of border crossing were evident, showcasing nuanced fan experiences (Jenkins 1992).
5. Clothes make the king
[5.1] A much-cited quote of Greg Dening (1992) states that reenactments "tend to hallucinate a past as merely the present in funny dress" (203–5). Although dress and appearance are often seen as trivial and unworthy of academic attention (Frith and Gleeson 2004), appearance norms have changed throughout history (Edwards 1997; Faderman 1991) and are most important for the new Alfreds. Regarding costume references, the reenactors largely relied on historical sources rather than modern pop culture. One reenactor stated, "We meticulously study historical records and archaeological findings to create accurate costumes," indicating their commitment to authenticity. In contrast, cosplayers drew inspiration from popular TV series, adapting and incorporating elements from contemporary portrayals of King Alfred. Kim Wilkins describes the "engine" of the popular fantasy genre as "the exposition and elaboration of the setting, from which characterisation and plots specific to the setting are then generated" (2016), and this also goes for both cosplay and reenactment—the outfits, accessories, and, if available, background items (such as a tent or a campfire) create the performance. When looking at the costumes from a design perspective, there is more overlap than difference. The reenactors and the cosplayers are much alike when it comes to the origins and inspirations for their looks. Some are similar to the depiction of Alfred in The Last Kingdom, sometimes with trousers, sometimes with a long robe. Others are inspired by historical images found online, such as the depiction of Alfred on a banner in Kingston Deverill, St Mary's Church and/or based on the famous statue of Alfred in Winchester, England, which is basically a less ornamented version of the second design, worn with boots. Although fundamentally different in origins and distinguishable for the people wearing them, on the surface level, the designs of the cosplayers and the reenactors do overlap, in part because many items from the Kingston banner and the statue could also be traced in the depiction of The Last Kingdom.
[5.2] The differences between historical reenactment—living as Alfred might have lived—and cosplay—representing Alfred—did come into play when it comes to the quality of the material and the handwork of the outfits. It seems that in general the cosplayers go more for modern, synthetic fabrics and prefabricated costumes, where the reenactors like to make everything from scratch, with natural materials that probably also would have been available in the Anglo-Saxon era and context. This confirms the literature review above, which described historical reenactment as a practice of knowledge-building and recreating methods of the past (also in terms of costume design, living arrangements, performance, cooking, and so forth). One of the reenactors admitted to looking down on cosplayers who "order their complete costumes on the internet." Just as Victoria Clarke and Kevin Turner noticed in their research on queer clothing, "men cannot simply buy their way to the upper echelons of the biscuit tin, the wrong people in the right clothes are all too obvious" (Clarke and Turner 2007, 6). In the words of one of the reenactors: "Sometimes I see such a cosplayer in a perfect robe, with modern boots, a modern haircut or even glasses, and then I know that they just do not understand anything about early English history."
[5.3] Although the ideas and experiences of immersion are central in reenactment, the practice cannot be disconnected from present-day ideas and sensibilities. When I asked the reenactor about his choice of words "early English," it became clear that he is deliberately avoiding the term Anglo-Saxon because of its historical links to insidious ideas about white superiority. "I don't want people to think that Alfred was racist," he wrote. The racist associations with the term Anglo-Saxon mainly arose in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, thus, the living history in many aspects incorporates the representation of present-day culture. This is much in line with the approach of the cosplayers and with the first scholars of reception history, whose concerns are more about how a certain experience (like reading a text) affects them. Through this immersion, the people involved create their own (mythical) realities. In the words of one reenactor: "I love […] that moment of forgetting where, when and who I normally am, of stepping outside of myself and my daily life." In this process, the new artifacts created by the people involved, like the costumes discussed above, intensify the immersion.
6. Motivations
[6.1] For the people playing Alfred, immersion is just one of the pull-factors of their hobby. The new Alfreds are emotionally involved with Alfred the Great; they identify as fans and are fans according to the definition of Duffett (2013), which identifies fans as people who form a "positive emotional engagement." Out of these emotions, they use their reenactment as a performance of fandom and a performance against fandom. I asked them why the figure of Alfred the Great is so appealing to them and found out that the personal reasons behind their choice of character can roughly be categorized into three emotional groups. First, a general interest in history and historical research, which these people would like to share in an accessible, easy-to-grasp way. By explicitly placing their characters in the reinvented Middle Ages, both the cosplayers and the reenactors engage in medievalism, "the ongoing and broad cultural phenomenon of reinventing, remembering, recreating, and reenacting the Middle Ages" (Utz 2017, 81). Secondly, a lack of firsthand war experience, a psychological reason, as by portraying past war events, they can experience new forms of excitement and brotherhood (the spirit of adventure without being in real danger). Thirdly, for the British persons I interviewed, there is a form of nostalgia, national pride, a sense of common origins against the background of Brexit. These motivations resonate with the motivations of the Civil War reenactors interviewed by Dutch historian Tjark Blokzijl (2008).
[6.2] The main motivation for the reenactors I interviewed was their love for history. Many historians have made critical comments about a phenomenon such as historical evocation, but what struck me about the reenactors is their aim of portraying the Anglo-Saxon royal life as authentically as possible. As Blokzijl (2008) explains, the historical research of reenactors aims to create the most authentic representation possible. In the words of Richard Utz (2017), "medieval studies, the academic study of medieval culture focused on establishing the 'real' Middle Ages, is one essential contributor to the cultural phenomenon of Medievalism" (81). That might explain why some reenactors were annoyed with cosplayers performing medievalism, although reenactment itself has been the victim of similar blame by more traditionally oriented historians. With their performances as a narrative medium that manages to present the past in a new way, the reenactors engage in historical reimagination. While mostly improvising, the fans "rewrite the stories" (Haraway 1992, 355), as they perform a form of historical fiction that is slowly gaining traction in literary spaces. In the words of Tom de Bruin (2019), they play "a nuanced, fannish game of simultaneously perpetuating and subverting canonical authority." Historical reimagining often entails the orientation of a historical record toward the perspective of the writer/performer and not to the true record of events that took place. Traditionally, historical fiction encapsulated historical romance, a school of thought that was neither respected nor recognized (Spence 2013). Nonetheless, documentaries have incorporated reenacted scenes since the 1920s (Córdova 2015, 3). Historical reimagining is a trend that has adapted to the swift pace of change in storytelling and encapsulates the construction of historical events into new, unique, compelling, entertaining, and plausible narratives. Illustratively, PBS aired a special on the Spanish colonization of Florida called Secrets of Spanish Florida in 2017. The program looked into the founding of the St. Augustine settlement by the Spanish colonizers but introduced a unique side of the story—the conflict between the society's privileged and its victims through the lens of cultural Marxism (see also Drake 2018). On the whole, historical reimagining is a phenomenon among historical revisionist trends both in entertainment and education.
[6.3] Another motivation for the reenactors is the sense of family they experience in their group, especially when performing, but also during their research and other preparations. This solidarity is present in cosplayers as well, as in the words of Manon Meijer (2017), "their fandom [is] a world filled with love, creativity and especially togetherness" (4). In addition, this affiliation with a group also has an educational function. Reenactment "offers a form of learning not traditionally offered in the classroom" (Zygutis 2021), especially when more experienced cosplayers and reenactors are passing on knowledge and skills to those newer in the game. As Alison Ryan (2019) stated: "the modern reenactor is very lucky, they have access to a wealth of published material as well as access to digitized manuscripts from museums around the world but for a lot of my participants the central role of having a master from whom to learn is vital." With the term "master," Ryan refers to the ideas surrounding apprenticeships in medieval guilds. As both the reenactors and the cosplayers I interviewed confirmed, these feelings of being part of a group in which more experienced members act as teachers contributes to their sense of brotherhood.
[6.4] These feelings of belonging in a(n imagined) world together are intertwined with feelings of nostalgia, another major motivation when it comes to people playing Alfred the Great. The descriptions of nostalgia provided by both the reenactors and the cosplayers resonate with Svetlana Boym's (2001) idea of nostalgia as a tool to evoke different versions of the past and the pasts' futures. As explained in "Not King Alfred's Brexit" (Mussies 2021a), fans of the Netflix series The Last Kingdom connect the fictional depiction of King Alfred as the first king of the Anglo-Saxons and the creator of England (in Cornwell's historical interpretation) with recent developments relating to Brexit, the British exit from the European Union. The same goes for some of the British people performing as Alfred the Great. Anglo-Saxon England ended after catastrophic events in 1066. However, the historical period did not cease being a cultural construct in post-conquest England. This association with Alfred as a symbol of the English past also extended to the Dutch participants and their relationship with him. Despite being from the Netherlands, these participants expressed a profound interest and connection to Alfred as a historical figure. One Dutch participant elaborated, stating, "Although I'm Dutch, I admire King Alfred as a symbol of strength and resilience. His historical significance extends beyond national boundaries."
7. Religious aspects
[7.1] In the intertextual storytelling surrounding King Alfred, he is often associated with King David and even the biblical Jesus (Mussies 2023a). These connections highlight the significant role Alfred plays in the cultural and religious imagination. The religious acts and displays performed by the participants took place in various settings and contexts. These events occurred during specific reenactments, historical festivals, or cosplay events, providing opportunities for the participants to embody their interpretations of Alfred the Great. It can be inferred that the participants were broadly familiar and comfortable with Christian practices and symbols, as their performances often incorporated Christian gestures and symbolism. None of the participants held religious beliefs that were explicitly at odds with the Christian framework associated with Alfred. They did not come from backgrounds of another faith, such as Judaism, nor did they hold strongly opposing Christian beliefs, such as evangelical Protestantism in contrast to Catholicism or high Anglicanism. Moreover, none of the participants expressed antireligious sentiments or ideologies, indicating an absence of overt opposition to religious practices and displays. These findings suggest that the participants in this research shared a common familiarity and acceptance of Christian practices and symbols associated with Alfred the Great. While the specifics of their individual beliefs and backgrounds were not explored in detail, the absence of conflicting religious perspectives within the group allowed for a shared engagement with the religious aspects surrounding Alfred's portrayal.
[7.2] Both the cosplayers and the reenactors use Christian acts and symbols, such as the cross and the Bible and the Chi-Rho symbol. In line with the argument of Daria Radtchenko (2006), I consider these new artifacts to be "simulacra, referring not to the reality of the past, but, finally, to the texts about texts about the past." This rewriting of the stories by putting new layers on top of them is very visible in the way the new Alfreds use the Christian Chi-Rho, a Christogram, based on the first two letters of the Greek spelling of Jesus's name: ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ. The Anglo-Saxons did indeed use the Chi-Rho as well, as I witnessed when visiting Rochester Cathedral as part of the visiting choir (Mussies 2019a). In the Textus Roffensis, which is on display there, four Chi-Rho symbols can be found, all written for King Æthelred II (Monk 2017; Keynes 2015). Other surviving Chi-Rho depictions that might be linked to the historical context of King Alfred can be found in the Book of Kells (see for example Lewis 1980) and in the Lindisfarne Gospels (Watson 2017). When I asked one reenactor about this symbol, he answered that it meant peace, which is exactly the play on words used in the Textus Roffensis (XP becomes PX and with an added A it forms "pax"). And when asked why he wears what he considers to be "a medieval peace sign," he added that his reenactment group is a "very peaceful" one (with an added winking smiley). Thus, similar to other religious objects, for this reenactor, his Chi-Rho simulacrum also symbolizes the cohesion within the group.
[7.3] These simulacra connect these performances to religious ones, such as the passion play, thus crossing borders between these various forms of performance art. Of course, nonreligious people are also looking for a full and complete life (Taylor 2007, 7), but following the line of thought of Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), a pioneering sociologist known for his influential works on social cohesion and the role of religion in society, I regard religion as functioning primarily as a binding factor. Durkheim argued that religion serves as a central element that unites individuals, providing a shared set of beliefs and practices that reinforce social solidarity. It acts as a center to gather around and offers guidelines for the group's behavior, helping to maintain order and cohesion within the community. In my opinion, it thus does not matter what the contents of the beliefs are; religion is no sui generis. Just as popular movies can have a religious function for a group, there is a clear analogy between performing Alfred and religion, as both reenactment and cosplay provide "much that would ordinarily have been provided by religions, traditionally understood" (Lyden 2015, 16). This is underlined by the use of the Chi-Rho as a border-crossing simulacrum and the reenactor's commentary of the peaceful group.
[7.4] Next to these clear religious connections to playing Alfred that both groups are aware of and play with, there is also a more hidden layer of Christianity that is rooted in the depiction of Alfred being the new David and thus connected to Jesus. When performing Alfred's whole life story, both the cosplayers and the reenactors engage in a performance very similar to the genre of the passion play—sometimes referred to as Easter pageants (Cook 2004)—a religious drama that depicts the suffering, death, crucifixion, and resurrection of Jesus. These plays include the teachings and miracles of Jesus and other aspects of his life, just as playing Alfred might include his teachings and the myths surrounding him (from burning the cakes to being undercover as a harp player in a Viking camp). The Latin prayers of one of the cosplayers makes this connection even more clear, especially when considering that the passion plays were sometimes performed in Latin (Sticca 1970). With time, these plays took a more dramatic than liturgical form involving well-rehearsed action and elaborate props (King and Davidson 2000), more similar to the performances of Alfred's life. One reenactor I interviewed is currently writing his own script for a student play, in which the reenactor will become the actor who plays the role of Alfred "in historically accurate clothing" (private correspondence November 2019). According to the reenactor, his play will include rhyming translations of the psalms in modern English. This can be linked to the Renaissance passion plays that with the introduction of free translations of church hymns and German verses rapidly advanced to include the Vienna passion, the St. Gall passion, the Frankfort passion, and the Maestricht passion, all written in the vernacular language, often in rhyme (Chansky 2006). By writing this more complicated and rhyming theater script, this cosplayer moves away from the improvised simple storylines performed by the other fans playing King Alfred.
[7.5] New religious communities are forming in fandom by performing rituals, which leads to even more parallels, connections, and intersections between religion and fandom. Both reenactors and cosplayers stressed that playing Alfred is not just a hobby, but that it is useful, meaningful, and a contribution to "living a full and complete life." As such, they hint toward an overarching motivation behind their love for history, sense of brotherhood, and nostalgia—the reasons also present in the research by Blokzijl (2008). "A growing number of sociological, anthropological and cultural perspectives explain how individuals construct religious experience from popular culture forms, everything from Elvis Presley to Star Trek." (Nelson and Woods 2011, 117). This new form of religiosity is easy to spot in the reenactment and cosplay of Alfred the Great. Because the Anglo-Saxon king has always been depicted as a very pious and devout person, many aspects of Christianity found their way into twenty-first-century medievalism. The fans who play Alfred perform Christian rituals, such as praying and burning candles. Because of these acts, performing Alfred is hard to distinguish from a religious act—the fans perform the Christian faith "just like a priest performs the ritual of bread and wine," as one participant explained.
[7.6] Whereas Matt Hills (2013) argues that "traditional religiosity, and a secularized loss of faith, are displaced and replaced by media fandoms," the expressions of the fans performing as Alfred merely add a new layer to the existing—namely Christian—faith. By presenting a religious view on King Alfred, they perform his life as if it were a hagiography—a biography of a saint or an ecclesiastical leader and, by extension, an adulatory and idealized biography of a founder, saint, monk, nun, or icon (Rapp 2012). Akin to the passion plays in a medieval context, playing Alfred in a neomedieval context serves as a community function. The performances strengthen communal identity and forge connections among participants and spectators, as they provide a shared experience that fostered social bonds and a sense of belonging. Passion plays were deeply intertwined with local religious practice and education. Although one of the participants said he viewed Christian symbols and gestures as neutral, emphasizing a message of peace, it is important to critically examine the limitations and implications of this perception. Acknowledging the exclusions in medieval passion plays, particularly toward Judaism, highlights the need for modern interpretations to be inclusive and address historical biases. Although the people playing Alfred might be rooted in two vastly different traditions—historical reenactment and cosplay—their emotional and religious experiences seem to have a common ancestry in the performances of passion plays, where they seek meaningful expressions of faith, community, and cultural heritage.
8. Reflections
[8.1] The limitations of this research are evident due to the small sample size of just seven participants, all of whom are white, able-bodied, cisgender, and male. This raises concerns about the generalizability and inclusivity of the findings. By choosing the less performed character of Alfred, the research fails to capture diverse perspectives and experiences related to cosplaying a historical figure. The focus on cosplaying Alfred as a symbol of post-Brexit British identity further contributes to the potential limitations of the research. By centering on this specific context, the study may also overlook alternative motivations, interpretations, and experiences that individuals from different backgrounds might bring to their engagement with the character. The narrow scope may limit the understanding of the broader implications and complexities surrounding the portrayal of Alfred and its intersection with diverse identities, histories, and sociopolitical contexts. Furthermore, the possible use of generative AI cannot be ruled out—for example, when considering the prepared speeches of the participants (Mussies 2023b).
[8.2] In contrast, Lome (2016) explores the transformative power of cosplay in fostering self-expression and enhancing individuals' confidence in their bodies, sexuality, and physical capabilities. To address these issues in the realm of performing as a historical figure, future research should strive for a more inclusive and diverse participant pool. This would ensure that a broader range of perspectives and experiences are represented, enabling a more comprehensive analysis of the multifaceted dimensions of cosplaying a historical figure. By intentionally including participants from diverse backgrounds, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the ways in which various individuals engage with and interpret historical figures like Alfred, considering the intersections of race, ethnicity, gender, ability, and other aspects of identity. Such an inclusive approach would enrich the research findings and provide a more nuanced understanding of the subject matter.
[8.3] Moreover, there is ample room for further research to explore the intricate relationship between an investment in Alfred as a symbol of a post-Brexit world, nationally unifying Anglo-Saxon Englishness, and the potential associations with racist nostalgia for an ethnically white and Christian imagined Middle Ages. Delving into this complex issue in greater depth would provide valuable insights into the connections between reenactment, nationalist sentiments, and exclusivist ideologies. Future research might shed light on the nuanced interplay and critically analyze the potential consequences and ramifications of investing in Alfred as a representative figure of national identity. This would contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics at play and facilitate a meaningful discussion on the implications for inclusivity and diverse representation within the context of historical portrayal.
9. Conclusions
[9.1] In terms of craft, design, and context, cosplayers and reenactors are vastly different communities. Interestingly, fans from both sides perform as King Alfred. The past is an imaginary country, and historical figures straddle the line between what can be played with (history) and what cannot (heritage). Some fans mainly base their performance on popular media, others more on historical research. The findings of the study reveal that the participants' motivations for playing Alfred largely overlap. Thus, these fans blur the boundaries between those two forms of performance art. When looking at the costumes from a design perspective, the outfits of both groups seem rather similar, but there was a lot of difference in the quality of the costumes, which provided some tension between the two groups. Fans from both the historical reenactment and cosplay groups mentioned their love for history, a sense of belonging, and a feeling of nostalgia as primary drivers for their participation. The participants also hint at an overarching motivation behind these reasons, which is a new form of religiosity. There are clear Christian connections, as in their twenty-first-century medievalism, the fans perform Christian rituals and use Christian symbols. Their practices are similar to those performed in the passion plays and this underlines the religious function that playing Alfred has for these groups. Moreover, the use of the Chi-Rho symbol illustrates that the simulacra produced in these practices create new meaning by adding new layers to the existing texts. Fans from both groups are blurring the boundaries by rewriting the life story of King Alfred as if it were a hagiography. As a result of that, playing Alfred happens in a space in between, where reenactment and cosplay meet and collide. Further research will have to show whether this also applies to the playing of other historical figures, and fan studies could open up even more to these and other practices—to explore what fandom is and what the implications of these practices are for traditional historical research.
[9.2] Playing Alfred the Great has a broader meaning beyond being a hobby for fun. Both cosplayers and reenactors consider their performance as a contribution to living a full and complete life, which is similar to how religion functions as a binding factor for a group. This study argues that the performance of Alfred the Great, which uses Christian acts and symbols such as the Chi-Rho, is hard to distinguish from a religious act. This form of religious experience from popular culture is referred to as a new form of religiosity that can be found in the reenactment and cosplay of Alfred the Great. The study also points out that playing Alfred's life story involves a performance very similar to the genre of the passion play, which is a religious drama that depicts the suffering, death, crucifixion, and resurrection of Jesus. As such, this research highlights the religious connections to playing Alfred, and how it crosses borders between various forms of performance art. Beyond this particular group of fans, this study highlights the potential for other forms of fandom to also take on religious and spiritual meanings. It suggests that fandom can offer a sense of community, purpose, and a way of living a full and complete life that is similar to what religion can provide. This has implications for the way we view and understand fandom as a cultural phenomenon. It may also encourage scholars to look for religious and spiritual connections in other fandoms, particularly those that involve performance art, such as cosplay and reenactment. Moreover, this study also raises questions about the relationship between popular culture and religion. It shows how popular culture, in this case, the story of Alfred the Great, can be used to create new forms of religiosity. This suggests that popular culture has the potential to offer religious and spiritual experiences that are different from traditional religious practices. This may be particularly relevant in the context of the declining influence of organized religion in many parts of the world. As people search for alternative ways of finding meaning and purpose, popular culture may offer a new avenue for spiritual fulfillment.